Tuesday, March 31, 2020
Analysis of John Smiths Advertising Campaign Essays
Analysis of John Smiths Advertising Campaign Essays Analysis of John Smiths Advertising Campaign Paper Analysis of John Smiths Advertising Campaign Paper The advertising campaign I chose to look at was for John Smiths. The famous British beer with the No Nonsense attitude, John Smiths is the number one ale brand in the UK, selling over one million pints every day with annual retail sales in excess of i 650 million. High profile marketing, incorporating TV advertising, sponsorships and innovative consumer promotions, has driven John Smiths success to the point where the brands on trade sales total more than its two nearest competitors added together. The brands annual marketing investment, which stands at a record of  £ 20 million, was much to be congratulated by its No Nonsense TV campaign with comedian Peter Kay which dramatises the virtues of a No Nonsense approach to life. The John Smiths advertising campaign with Peter Kay has earned almost 50 advertising and marketing awards to date. More importantly, the advertising has captured the hearts and minds of consumers everywhere helping the brand build on its dominance as the number one ale brand in the UK. For Scottish Courage (the owners of John Smiths), the challenge for its John Smiths brand was to achieve dominance of the ale sector. The objective for 2002 communications was to create a sense of brand ubiquity (maintaining high advertising awareness, increasing spontaneous brand awareness and consideration), make the brand more attractive to younger male drinkers without scaring away older drinkers, and also to strengthen the consumer franchise overall. A requirement was also to make the brand more attractive to the trade to help secure broader distribution. In order to make the share of impact much greater than share of spending, Scottish Courage needed a communications property with high advertising impact that could also be carried below the line. The role of the advertising was to further develop the No Nonsense idea, which had already been successfully introduced in previous campaigns. The premise of No Nonsense ads was to strike a chord with the audience and make ale drinkers feel more comfortable about drinking John Smiths. The key target market was identified as 20 and 30 something men, both existing ale drinkers and prospects. The proposition being No Nonsense Ale for No Nonsense Blokes. TBWA/London developed a creative idea involving comedian Peter Kay in various humorous situations. Televisions reach potential and its ability to generate massive awareness amongst a young male target market were obviously key factors in determining the eventual media mix. In terms of traditional advertising, television secured almost the entire spend, with only limited budgets allocated to press and radio. After ditching Jack Dee as its brand spokesman over 5 years ago, the makers of John Smiths bitter returned to the comedy circuit for a i 20 million advertising campaign starring the up-and-coming stand-up Peter Kay. He is intertextual because he is well known through his comedy programs such as Phoenix Nights. Scottish Courage ended its contract with the old comic (Jack Dee) in 1998 saying John Smiths was so famous it no longer needed a celebrity to endorse it. Instead, the brewer came up with No-nonsense man, a cardboard cut-out of an ordinary bloke shown sipping a pint of John Smiths on a deck chair and in his local pub. Then came theyre biggest and most recent campaign, the biggest ever for the brand, it will continue with the gimmick-free approach for which John Smiths has become famous Peter Kay. Here are three of the six adverts made from the recent John Smiths campaign: Ave It, Wardrobe Monsters and Top Bombing. The other three successful adverts that I will not be looking at were: Snooker, Showstopper and the most recent advert shown on television from John Smiths, Doorstep Challenge. The first ad, titled Ave It, had the narrative opening on a muddy recreation ground with a group of young football players showing off/practising their keepy uppy skills. After each individual demonstration, the player effortlessly passes the ball to a colleague keeping it off the ground, until it reaches the solid figure of Peter Kay. He then promptly boots the ball far away into a neighbouring garden whilst saying Ave it! The ad closes as Peter Kay self-congratulates himself for a moment saying oh yes, then opts for a can of John Smiths over the traditional half-time oranges and the John Smiths slogan No Nonsense appears. This advert clearly represents Peter Kay as a laid back individual as the players before him had been doing all that fancy footwork and he just trumps in and wellies it totally uncontrolled, and he is also proud of himself. He represents himself by the way he speaks and the way he chooses the beer over the oranges is clearly to show the whole idea of a no nonsense lifestyle. The advert is of a sporting genre, which shows us that the intended audience is probably for men above 18. The next John Smiths advert I looked at was one called Wardrobe Monsters. The advert opens with two couples eating together in a restaurant laughing (laid back), Peter Kay being one of the male partners. His mobile phone rings and answers it to find that its the babysitter looking after his daughter. His daughter, Britney, speaks to him on the phone and informs him that she is having nightmares about the wardrobe monsters. He tells her, theres no such thing as wardrobe monsters, its the burglars that brake in through the window thats you want to be worried about. He then ironically says sweet dreams to his daughter than asks for two more beers from the bar without even realising what he has said to his daughter, showing his laid back approach to life. He takes a sip of his pint, then realises that they are all starring at him and says what? Also showing he was being serious about the way he replied to his daughter but comedian towards the audience at the same time. The final image is of a pint of John Smiths and as before its slogan No Nonsense, summing up the whole point of the advert. This advert probably appeals to both male and female audiences as it is concentrating on the non-seriousness of Peter Kays ideas towards parenthood. The final John Smiths advert I looked at from its most recent campaign is entitled Top Bombing. The advert starts in the scene of some sort of diving event e. g. Olympics. Everything comes across to be authentic as we see real diving platforms and pools, a commentator expressing his feelings on the dives, a voice in the background telling the type of dive and judges score, action replays of the dives, and also diagetic sounds e. g. jumping off platforms and the diver hitting the water. First we see a diver from Australia, Darren Croll. He does a spectacular dive involving lots of twists and turns. The commentator says, Oh thats a good dive! Next there is a diver from Canada, Petit. He also does an amazing dive consisting of lots of summersaults, the commentator says oh even better! Then he says, now the favourite John Smith for Great Britain. We then see the image of Peter Kay standing on the platform with his hands in his pockets acting like its nothing to be in the competition. We briefly hear the speaker in the background say what he is about to do, a running bomb. Peter Kay throws himself off the platform, making the water splash everywhere, e ven over the judges. The commentator then says, oh terrific the crowd love it, and so do the judges! He says this as the speaker reads out all of his scores as 10, beating the other two divers by a lot. The commentator finishes by saying, top bombing! Peter Kay climbs up the swimming pool ladder to get out and exposes the top of his bottom and waves to the crowd. Once again showing how laid back and proud he is of his lifestyle. Also as in the other adverts there is an image of a pint of John Smiths beer and the slogan No Nonsense, supporting the idea of the whole advert. This advert would have been aimed at anyone 18+ as it is mainly just mocking the fact that he beat these extremely hard dives by doing a running bomb, which is effortless. To maximise the impact of the investment, Scottish Courage together with Media Vest developed a focused TV buying strategy. A high percentage of the advertising was placed in and around mainly sports programming on the terrestrial channels e. g. Cricket on 4, World Cup and Grand Prix on ITV1, and the various Sky Sports channels. Sports programming offered a good fit with existing John Smiths drinkers TV viewing patterns. John Smiths is involved in a lot of horse racing advertising at the races. John Smiths association with racing dates back to 1959 when the brewers Magnet Ale became the first commercial sponsor in flat racing, entering into an enduring partnership with the nearby racecourse at York. Now re-titled the John Smiths Cup, it is the longest-established flat race sponsorship in Britain. John Smith was just 24 years of age when he purchased a run down brew house in Tadcaster in 1847 eight years after a horse called Lottery had won the first ever Grand National at Aintree beginning a successful brewing heritage that has spanned more than one and a half centuries. John Smiths current list of sponsored races include: The John Smiths Cup at York; The John Smiths Northumberland Plate; The John Smiths Midlands Grand National at Uttoxeter and The John Smiths Stakes at Newbury. The company has a long and successful track record in sports and arts sponsorship including, in the present day: The Fosters British Grand Prix; Kronenbourg 1664 Official Beer of the Open Golf Tournament; The John Smiths Cup at York; Scrumpy Jack official drink of the English Cricket Team and Becks Futures at the ICA. It also fitted well with potential John Smiths drinkers viewing habits (lager drinkers with a no nonsense attitude to life). The strategy provided John Smiths a dominant share of voice within the relevant sports programming context. Research shows that John Smiths enduring association with a no nonsense attitude plays a big part in its appeal to consumers and everything about Peters character reflects this. John Smiths is to sponsor the Grand National meeting in a new three-year multi-million pound title sponsorship agreement. The very first John Smiths Grand National meeting will take place on Thursday 7th Saturday 9th April 2005. The Grand National is the Worlds most famous race, broadcast in over 140 countries with an estimated audience of over 600 million viewers. The three-day meeting attracts 150,000 race goers. This just goes to show the amount of media coverage John Smiths advertising receives. There appears to be a clear understanding of what the advertising is saying about the John Smiths brand shown by all the awards won. This has built over the course of the campaign to date. Endorsement of the statement John Smiths is a humorous and down to earth brand is just one example. Attribution of image statements like is a brand for people like me have increased amongst all age groups. The Peter Kay campaign created massive awareness. It successfully communicated the brands no nonsense positioning in a way that people could really engage with. As a result people feel closer to the brand, which ultimately has had a positive impact on sales. The John Smiths campaign with Peter Kay has achieved massively considering it is only a piece of advertising for a type of ale. The TV commercials have been talked about in offices and pubs across the country, and sayings such as Ave it have entered everyday conversation and discussion. The latest No Nonsense campaign has carried on a strong tradition of memorable and highly successful John Smiths TV advertising. The advertising has resulted in increased awareness and sales. It also won a number of awards including the Creative Circle and Campaign magazines Campaign of the Year 2002. The judges described the advertising as a brilliant campaign that has entered peoples everyday lives while significantly boosting sales and winning fans, plaudits and column inches galore in the process.
Saturday, March 7, 2020
French Compound Tenses and Moods
French Compound Tenses and Moods Conjugations for the different French verb tenses and moods can be divided into two categories: simple and compound. Simple tenses and moods have only one part (e.g., je vais) whereas compound tenses and moods have two (je suis allà ©). This lesson will explain everything you need to know about the more complicated compound conjugations.But first, a chart: the simple tense or mood on the left is used to conjugate the auxiliary verb for the compound tense or mood on the right, as demonstrated with the verb avoir (to have). Simple Compound Present tu as (you have) Pass compos tu as eu (you have had) Imperfect tu avais (you were having) Pluperfect tu avais eu (you had had) Pass simple tu eus (you had) Past anterior tu eus eu (you had had) Future tu auras (you will have) Future perfect tu auras eu (you will have had) Conditional tu aurais (you would have) Conditional perfect tu aurais eu (you would have had) Subjunctive tu aies (you have) Past subjunctive tu aies eu (you had) Imperfect subjunctive tu eusses (you were having) Pluperfect subjunctive tu eusses eu (you had had) Imperative (tu) aie ([you] have) Past imperative (tu) aie eu ([you] have had) Present participle ayant (having) Perfect participle ayant eu (having had) Infinitive avoir (to have) Past infinitive avoir eu (to have had) Please note that I have provided (English translations) to give you an idea about the differences in meaning, but there may be other possibilities. For detailed information about each tense and mood, click the links to read the lesson. You might also find this lesson helpful: Translating French verbs into English. See other French verbs conjugated into all the tenses and moods: Simple Compound aller aller avoir avoir tre tre prendre prendre There are four things you need to know about French compound tenses and moods in order to conjugate and use them correctly. 1. Two-part conjugations Compound tenses/moods are always made up of two parts: the conjugated auxiliary verb (either avoir or à ªtre) and the past participle. French verbs are classified by their auxiliary verb, and use it for all compound moods/tenses. That is, avoir verbs use avoir in all of the compound tenses/moods, and à ªtre verbs use à ªtre in all the compound tenses/moods.In the chart on page 1, the tense/mood in the first column is the conjugation used for the auxiliary verb of the compound tense/mood listed in the second column.For example, aller is an à ªtre verb. So the present tense of à ªtre, Il est, is the conjugation used for the passà © composà © of aller: Il est allà ©Ã‚ (He went).Manger is an avoir verb. The future of avoir, Nous aurons, is the conjugation for the future perfect, Nous aurons mangà ©Ã‚ (We will have eaten). 2. Agreement There are two different types of agreement with compound tenses and moods, depending on whether youre dealing with à ªtre verbs or avoir verbs.Être verbs: In all compound tenses/moods, the past participle of à ªtre verbs has to agree with the subject of the sentence in gender and number.   Il est allà ©.   He went.   Elle à ©tait allà ©e.   She had gone.    Ils seront allà ©s.   They will have gone.   ...quelles soient allà ©es.   ...that they went.Avoir verbs: The past participle of avoir verbs that are preceded by a direct object must agree with the direct object*   Les livres que tu as commandà ©s sont ici.   The books that you ordered are here.   La pomme ? Je laurai mangà ©e.   The apple? I will have eaten it.    Mes sÅ“urs... vous les aviez vues ?   My sisters... had you seen them?*Except for ve rbs of perception and the causative.When the direct object follows the avoir verb, there is no agreement.   As-tu commandà © des livres ?   Did you order some books?   Jaurai mangà © la pomme.   I will have eaten the apple.    Aviez-vous vu mes sÅ“urs ?   Had you seen my sisters?There is no agreement with indirect objects.   Je leur ai parlà ©.   I talked to them.   Il nous a tà ©là ©phonà ©.   He called us.Learn more about agreement 3. Word order: Pronouns Object, reflexive, and adverbial pronouns always precede the auxiliary verb in compound tenses/moods:    Je te lai donnà ©.   I gave it to you.   Il lavait fait.   He had done it.    Nous y serons allà ©s.   We will have gone there. 4. Word order: Negation Negative structures almost always surround the auxiliary verb**    Je nai pas à ©tudià ©.   I didnt study.   Nous naurions jamais su.   We would have never known.**Exceptions:   a) In the past infinitive, both parts of the negation precede the auxiliary verb:       Jespà ¨re ne pas avoir perdu.      I hope I didnt lose.   b) Personne, aucun, and nulle part follow the past participle:      Je nai vu personne.      I didnt see anyone.      Je ne lai trouvà © nulle part.      I couldnt find it anywhere. 34. Word order with pronouns and negation When the sentence includes a pronoun and negation, the pronoun is placed in front of the auxiliary verb, and then the negative structure surrounds that pair:Subject  ne pronoun(s) auxiliary verb negative word past participle.   Nous ny serions jamais allà ©s.   We would never have gone there.   Je ne te lai pas donnà ©.   I didnt give it to you.For detailed information about the conjugations and uses of the individual compound tenses/moods, follow the links in the summary table on page 1. Other two-verb constructions In addition to compound conjugations (auxiliary verb past participle), French has other two-verb forms, what I call dual-verb constructions. These consist of a semi-auxiliary verb plus an infinitive, and the rules regarding agreement and word order are somewhat different - learn more. For more information about how all the different French tenses and moods fit together, take a look at our French verb timeline.
Thursday, February 20, 2020
National Issue Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words
National Issue - Research Paper Example The first and far most important consideration in this connection however, remains the worker and his needs. The needs are subjective and may have a variation of meanings for various cultures and individuals. The technological advancement and a change in human life style have a profound impact on working hour averages in first world countries like United States of America. The fast pace life of these social setups require specialized solutions for issues like maximum hours that an employee should work to earn his livings and to ensure the maintenance of social system. Despite being personal in nature the issue is no more a private concern and living societies have to address it in a collaborative and collective manner. The communal effect of the issue makes it a candidate for legal authenticity and legitimacy. However, Fleck (2009, p.3) has wisely inquired, â€Å"The number of hours individuals work stimulates debate on the quality of life in an international context: do some societ ies live to work while others work to live?†40-Hours Week a Balanced Approach The human history in terms of labor rights protection has not been very bright. Specially extended working hours from the emergence of industrial revolution have received the stanch criticism of social reformists. â€Å"The widespread poverty and harsh labor and living conditions of the working class spurred those interested in economic and social reforms to develop new ideas to change how the industrial society functions†(Weiner, Mark & George, 2008, p.36). Apart from any idealist stance we have to acknowledge that the standard of 40-hours week is a not only acceptable but a balanced approach to address the concerns of all stakeholders. The presence of two extreme end workers in this age of globalization; those working more then 40-hours a week and a majority working below this limit, still suggest that 40-hours work week is the balanced, wise and practical approach to the issue. However, t here is a need to bridge the gap between two extreme end workers. Amendments and improvements should be suggested to bring into effect a harmonized system with more comforting arrangement for the working class while keeping the working hours cap at 40-hours a week. A Social Indicator A debate on the suitable limit for maximum working hours is essentially a debate on the standard of life people enjoy not only in local context but in the context to other nations of the world. The international organizations constantly review their statistics in this regard to establish the living conditions in a society and issue reports that are largely referred to gauge the standard of life in a particular region of the world. It may be surprising for many people that American workers work more hours than their European counterparts. â€Å"The OECD data series showing that U.S. workers work more hours per year, on average, than their European counterparts appears to be slightly inflated because of differences in sources and methods, but the difference is nonetheless real.†Fleck (2009, p.27). Despite some inherent biases, the comparison has international acceptance and should be honestly used to learn our lessons as liberal nation. â€Å"The evidence presented in this article confirms that biases are inherent in data sources used to measure hours worked.†Fleck (2009, p.27). We have to decide whether the Fair Labor Standards Act 1938 can still govern
Tuesday, February 4, 2020
Neoclassical and Impressionism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words
Neoclassical and Impressionism - Essay Example The essay "Neoclassical and Impressionism" analyzes neoclassical artworks and artists of impressionism. Artists of this period defied some earlier artistic guidelines that entailed adhering to basic aspects meant to classify these images, but they kept the essence of being realistic in all their works. Consequently, this artistic period influenced diverse aspects besides innovations that marked its period and esteemed to date. Neoclassicism marked the onset of 19Th period movement that entailed strict adherence to austere linear design in expressing one’s ideas via artwork. Presently, numerous studies associate this period with architectural models, which by then involved, realistic drawing coupled with varied predetermined painting techniques. Therefore, the artists had to both apply and adhere to certain outlined rules, which was contrary to the impressionism period. This is because the latter besides realistic painting, it required artists’ varied and imaginative ski lls to convey the required message. Neoclassical epoch up to date marks the most remarkable phase in the European history. This is because of its various dynamic events, which characterized the period ranging from political to the empowerment of people’s economy in diverse ways. For illustration, military and political unrest that characterized the era aggravated by influential states while in pursuit of annexing lesser regions to strength their economies. Hence, this yielded to heightened rate of colonization that influenced other states. like Portugal to develop interest in Africa and US. This is because colonies besides acting as a sign of political power; they were principal source of industrial materials that boosted the states’ economic stability. Besides, economic stability in this era augmented due to the people’s literacy rise and marketing innovations as trade competition heightened among the party states. Studies associate this period with
Monday, January 27, 2020
The Irony In The Truman Show English Literature Essay
The Irony In The Truman Show English Literature Essay Truman from The Truman Show and Meursault from The Stranger both have things that foreshadow their ultimate choices in life, which include symbolism, existential themes, and irony. In The Truman Show , there is irony present throughout the whole movie. During most of the film, Truman wanted to leave Seahaven and go explore the world. He had a desire to do more than just live a quaint, common life. He is unique, and it is his motivation that makes him stand out. His enduring determination helped him find the answer. For example, he almost drowned during a storm while sailing, but he persisted on. Truman got an answer, but it may not have been the answer he was searching for. Once Truman learned that his life was a television show, he realized he would not be as unique if he left. He would not be the center of attention, and now wants to be just an ordinary person outside of Seahaven. There also irony present throughout The Stranger, as Meursault also has somewhat of an epiphany towards the end of the novel. Throughout the story, Meursault is indifferent to many things and does not show strong moral values. For example, he kills a man without strong reasoning. After getting sentenced to death, he truly realizes why he is getting punished for his actions. He understands what will happen to him and accepts it. Ironically, instead of having moral thoughts or feelings of remorse, he believes that hatred of him would make him feel less alone. However, he realizes he becomes happier when he better understands human existence and purpose. As if that blind rage had washed me clean, rid me of hope; for the first time, in that night alive with signs and stars, I opened myself to the gentle indifference of the world. Finding it so much like myself-so like a brother, really-I felt that I had been happy and that I was happy again. For everything to be consummated, for me to fe el less alone, I had only to wish that there be a large crowd of spectators the day of my execution and that they greet me with cries of hate, (Part 2, Chapter 5, P.123). He feels lonely, and it is the hate from the crowd of spectators that help him feel less alone. Meursault faced a lot of things like an existentialist. For example, he was ready to accept his consequence after he shot the Arab. He also was ready for death, knowing it is inevitable. Some existential themes include freewill, controlling your own fate, accepting your fate, and taking responsibility for your own actions. These themes are all present in The Stranger. It was the freewill that led him to shooting the Arab, because he was in total control. He chose his fate, accepted the consequences, and took responsibility for what he did. For example, he realized he was going to die, and accepted it. There are also existentialist themes in The Truman Show. Although the shows creator, Christof, tried to keep Truman in Seahaven, he ultimately could not. Trumans freewill and control of his own fate led him to discovering the truth about Seahaven, and thus controlling the outcome of his life. He accepted the reality of his life being centered around a television show, but moved on by leaving Seahaven. Although Trumans artificial world came to an end, he entered reality as he left Seahaven. Symbolically, Trumans fake world coming to an end was foreshadowed by a previous event. The light fixture that fell as Truman left his home symbolized things starting to fall apart. Shortly after this even, there were more examples that caused him to be suspicious and doubtful of the world around him. Another great example of symbolism in the film was the unfinished bridge that Truman and Marlon had conversations on. Truman was always uncertain of something when he spoke to Marlon on the bridge, and it could represent Trumans unfulfilled life and uncertainty. Although Trumans life was unfulfilled in his eyes, there is something that foreshadows him traveling in the future and discovering something. The name of his sailboat was the Santa Maria, which was a famous boat that Columbus sailed to America on. This foreshadowed Truman leaving the town of Seahaven to explore a completely new world. There is much symbolism present in The Stranger as well. For example, Mersault does not like being uncomfortable, especially from the weather. Many perceive the sun as a source of warmth, sometimes beauty, but Meursault dislikes the heat. The sun normally brings joy, emotional warmth or comfort to an individual, but Meursault seems to dislike feeling emotional in any way. He also dislikes heat from the sun. The sun was a barrier of Mersaults emotions. It also led him to murder. While walking on the beach, Meursault encountered the Arab again. The Arab reflected light off of his knife from the sun. Meursault thought to himself, All I could feel were the cymbals of sunlight crashing on my forehead and, instinctively, the dazzling spear flying up from the knife in front of me. The scorching blade slashed at my eyelashes and stabbed at my stinging eyes, (Part 1, Ch.6, P.59). Right after this, he shot and killed the Arab. It seems like the little emotions that Meursault had took over his actions. Before walks up to the Arab and shoots him, Meursault thinks to himself, It occurred to me that all I had to do was turn around and that would be the end of it. But the whole beach, throbbing in the sun, was pressing on my back. I took a few steps toward the spring, (Part 1, Ch.6, P.58).However, towards the end of the novel he did gain some morals and understood much more about life. When he did, he looked into the window, with the sun shining behind it, and gazed at his reflection: I moved closer to the window, and in the last light of day I gazed at my reflection one more time, (Part 2, Ch.2, P.81). As you can see, existential themes, symbols and irony not only foreshadow, but affect Meursaults and Trumans ultimate choices in life.
Sunday, January 19, 2020
Political Philosophy and Individualism Essay
Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes â€Å"the moral worth of the individual†. Individualists promote the exercise of one’s goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance and advocate that interests of the individual should achieve precedence over the state or a social group, while opposing external interference upon one’s own interests by society or institutions such as the government. Individualism makes the individual its focus and so starts â€Å"with the fundamental premise that the human individual is of primary importance in the struggle for liberation. †Individualism thus involves â€Å"the right of the individual to freedom and self-realization†. An individualist enters into society to further his or her own interests, or at least demands the right to serve his or her own interests, without taking the interests of society into consideration. The individualist does not lend credence to any philosophy that requires the sacrifice of the self-interest of the individual for any higher social causes. Jean-Jacques Rousseau would argue, however, that his concept of â€Å"general will†in the â€Å"social contract†is not the simple collection of individual wills and precisely furthers the interests of the individual (the constraint of law itself would be beneficial for the individual, as the lack of respect for the law necessarily entails, in Rousseau’s eyes, a form of ignorance and submission to one’s passions instead of the preferred autonomy of reason). Individualists are chiefly concerned with protecting individual autonomy against obligations imposed by social institutions (such as the state or religious morality). (Encyclopedia Britannica) Individualism, political and social philosophy that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual. Individualism once exhibited interesting national variations, but its various meanings have since largely merged. Following the upheaval of the French Revolution, individualisme was used pejoratively in Franceto signify the sources of social dissolution and anarchy and the elevation of individual interests above those of the collective. The term’s negative connotation was employed by French reactionaries, nationalists, conservatives, liberals, and socialists alike, despite their different views of a feasible and desirable social order. In Germany, the ideas of individual uniqueness (Einzigkeit) and self-realizationâ€â€in sum, the Romantic notion of individualityâ€â€contributed to the cult of individual genius and were later transformed into an organic theory of national community. According to this view, state and society are not artificial constructs erected on the basis of a social contract but instead unique and self-sufficient cultural wholes. In England, individualism encompassed religious nonconformity (i. e. , nonconformity with the Church of England) and economic liberalism in its various versions, including both laissez-faire and moderate state-interventionist approaches. In the United States, individualism became part of the core American ideology by the 19th century, incorporating the influences of New England Puritanism, Jeffersonianism, and the philosophy of natural rights. American individualism was universalist and idealist but acquired a harsher edge as it became infused with elements of social Darwinism (i.e. , the survival of the fittest). â€Å"Rugged individualism†â€â€extolled by Herbert Hoover during his presidential campaign in 1928â€â€was associated with traditional American values such as personal freedom,capitalism, and limited government. As James Bryce, British ambassador to the United States (1907–13), wrote in The American Commonwealth (1888), â€Å"Individualism, the love of enterprise, and the pride in personal freedom have been deemed by Americans not only their choicest, but [their] peculiar and exclusive possession. †The French aristocratic political philosopher Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–59) described individualism in terms of a kind of moderate selfishness that disposed humans to be concerned only with their own small circle of family and friends. Observing the workings of the American democratic tradition for Democracy in America (1835–40), Tocqueville wrote that by leading â€Å"each citizen to isolate himself from his fellows and to draw apart with his family and friends,†individualism sapped the â€Å"virtues of public life,†for which civic virtue and association were a suitable remedy. For the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt (1818–97), individualism signified the cult of privacy, which, combined with the growth of self-assertion, had given â€Å"impulse to the highest individual development†that flowered in the European Renaissance. The French sociologist Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) identified two types of individualism: the utilitarian egoism of the English sociologist and philosopher Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), who, according to. Durkheim, reduced society to â€Å"nothing more than a vast apparatus of production and exchange,†and the rationalism of the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1788), and the French Revolution’s Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789), which has as â€Å"its primary dogma the autonomy of reason and as its primary rite the doctrine of free enquiry. †The Austrian economist F. A. Hayek (1899–1992), who favoured market processes and was distrustful of state intervention, distinguished what he called â€Å"false†from â€Å"true†individualism. False individualism, which was represented mainly by French and other continental European writers, is characterized by â€Å"an exaggerated belief in the powers of individual reason†and the scope of effective social planning and is â€Å"a source of modern socialism†; in contrast, true individualism, whose adherents included John Locke (1632–1704), Bernard de Mandeville (1670–1733), David Hume (1711–76), Adam Ferguson (1723–1816), Adam Smith (1723–90), and Edmund Burke(1729–97), maintained that the â€Å"spontaneous collaboration of free men often creates things which are greater than their individual minds can ever fully comprehend†and accepted that individuals must submit â€Å"to the anonymous and seemingly irrational forces of society. †Other aspects of individualism pertain to a series of different questions about how to conceive the relation between collectivities and individuals. One such question focuses on how facts about the behaviour of groups, about social processes, and about large-scale historical events are to be explained. According to methodological individualism, a view advocated by Austrian-born British philosopher Karl Popper (1902–94), any explanation of such a fact ultimately must appeal to, or be stated in terms of, facts about individualsâ€â€about their beliefs, desires, and actions. A closely related view, sometimes called ontological individualism, is the thesis that social or historical groups, processes, and events are nothing more than complexes of individuals and individual actions. Methodological individualism precludes explanations that appeal to social factors that cannot in turn be individualistically explained. Examples are Durkheim’s classic account of differential suicide rates in terms of degrees of social integration and the account of the incidence of protest movements in terms of the structure of political opportunities. Ontological individualism contrasts with various ways of seeing institutions and collectivities as â€Å"real†â€â€e. g. , the view of corporations or states as agents and the view of bureaucratic roles and rules or status groups as independent of individuals, both constraining and enabling individuals’ behaviour. Another question that arises in debates over individualism is how objects of worth or value (i. e. , goods) in moral and political life are to be conceived. Some theorists, known as atomists, argue that no such goods are intrinsically common or communal, maintaining instead that there are only individual goods that accrue to individuals. According to this perspective, morality and politics are merely the instruments through which each individual attempts to secure such goods for himself. One example of this view is the conception of political authority as ultimately derived from or justified by a hypothetical â€Å"contract†between individuals, as in the political philosophy of Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679). Another is the idea, typical in economics and in other social sciences influenced by economics, that most social institutions and relationships can best be understood by assuming that individual behaviour is motivated primarily by self-interest. Individualism with its endorsement of private enjoyments and control of one’s personal environment and its neglect of public involvement and communal attachment, has long been lamented and criticized from both the right and the left and from both religious and secular perspectives. Especially notable critiques have been made by advocates of communitarianism, who tend to equate individualism with narcissism and selfishness. Likewise, thinkers in the tradition of â€Å"republican†political thoughtâ€â€according to which power is best controlled by being dividedâ€â€are disturbed by their perception that individualism deprives the state of the support and active involvement of citizens, thereby impairing democratic institutions. Individualism also has been thought to distinguish modern Western societies from premodern and non-Western ones, such as traditional India and China, where, it is said, the community or the nation is valued above the individual and an individual’s role in the political and economic life of his community is largely determined by his membership in a specific class or caste.
Saturday, January 11, 2020
Narrative Essay on the Life of Frederick Douglass Essay
In the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave Frederick Douglass recounts his life of slavery and his eventual flight to freedom. When he was a youngster he was placed in a household in which the naive mistress started to teach him to read. Her efforts were halted by her husband and young Douglass recalled his lecture on the reasons slaves should not be educated. However the brief lessons placed within Douglass the desire to continue to learn, by whatever means possible, to read and to write. He had discovered that education and literacy was to be his â€Å"pathway from slavery to freedom. †Douglass illustrates that literacy is the most important asset a man can ac-quire if he is to achieve life-changing goals. Douglass’ new ambition to become literate had both positive and negative effects. His new desire filled him â€Å"high hope and a fixed purpose†and his life was fundamentally changed from that early time in life. His quest for literacy was fueled with confidence that his future life would be radically different and better once he had mastered reading and writing. However it was not without negative effects as well. The more he learned of slavery the more he hated his own condition and the slave-owners that created it. As his masters became aware of his ability he was constantly watched as they tried to prevent him from reaching his goal. For a slave the path to literacy was very difficult. However the path to literacy led Douglass to consequences he could not have im-agined. An entirely new world was opened for him, and with literacy came knowledge of a life that slaves had been denied. With literacy eventually came knowledge of religion and the great Abolition movement. The greatest consequence of literacy was freedom of the mind and freedom of thought, and literacy became for Douglass the tool with which he would become his own â€Å"master†. Literacy was for Douglass and other slaves a power which they had been denied. Ignorance and illiteracy were tools more powerful than the whip and chains, and were used effectively by the slave-owners to keep slaves in submission. The slave owners un-derstood this and feared literate and educated slaves who would now know there is no truth in the slave-owner’s belief that they â€Å"should know nothing but to obey his master. †Slave owners knew the desire for literacy would spread among the slaves and would be the essential method for their eventual freedom. It was a power the slave owners were not willing to give to their slaves. Douglass defines literacy not only by describing the obvious ability to read and write, but shows true literacy as the ability to understand and communicate thoughts, de-sires, and emotions. Douglass shows literacy as being the true bond between free men and the method to unite against slavery and oppression. Literacy unites man while ignorance and illiteracy keeps man isolated from the rest of the world. Although Narrative was written over one hundred and sixty years ago it still serves as a valid reminder of the power of literacy, which remains the most important as-set a man can acquire. With literacy all things are possible, and without it the illiterate become slaves to ignorance.
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